Given the value and scarcity of rare earth elements, after years of inactivity, recent years have seen renewed interest from both the private sector and governments in the commercial exploitation of marine minerals. This interest is driven by technological advancements in marine mining and processing, and increased long-term demand for minerals due to globalization and industrialization and the need for renewable, low-carbon infrastructure. This is especially true of the Chinese.
President Xi Jinping has spoken about the need to control key technologies for deep-sea exploration and development to tap into the “treasures” of the deep sea. This has led to policies and actions aimed at promoting commercialization and utilization of deep-sea mining, including massive polymetallic sulfide deposits around hydrothermal vents, cobalt-rich crusts on the sides of seamounts and fields of manganese nodules on the abyssal plains.
Under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the international deep seabed area is named “the Area”, which, together with its resources are the common heritage of mankind, beyond the limit of national jurisdiction, governed by the International Seabed Authority (ISA). Actively involved in shaping the broader law of the sea, China has been significantly increasing its influence within the ISA, even positioning itself as a central rulemaker in the international deep-seabed area. Under UNCLOS, seabed mineral exploration and exploitation must be conducted under contracts with the ISA and comply with its regulations. These contracts can be issued to public and private enterprises sponsored by a State party to UNCLOS, provided they meet certain technological and financial standards.
The economic benefits of deep seabed mining, mainly in the form of royalties, are to be shared for the “benefit of mankind,” especially aiding developing countries lacking the technology and capital for seabed mining. The ISA has approved 30 exploration contracts across the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans, from polymetallic nodule fields, seafloor massive sulphides, and cobalt-rich crusts.
China’s strategic and economic interests in the deep seabed have driven its efforts to advocate for rules that favor deep-sea mining. This focus on maximizing exploitation often comes at the expense of addressing environmental and technical concerns. This has put China in a strong position to influence the regulations governing the exploitation of seabed minerals, which are essential for green and renewable energy technologies, as well as defense and aerospace applications.
Meanwhile, though the debate around deep-sea mining is intensifying as the demand for minerals used in green technologies grows, so does the concern for the potential environmental impacts. France is the only nation to call for a ban on deep sea mining whilst the UK, Norway and China have pushed for deep sea mining. Chinese officials have emphasised the economic importance of deep-sea mining and have been pushing for the swift exploitation of seabed resources. The US has also introduced bills calling for a moratorium in both their own EEZ and international waters.
The “Three Dragons” initiative by China focusing on deep-sea exploration and mining. It includes both manned submersibles and autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs). China has developed several impressive manned submersibles, allowing its scientists to conduct biological, chemical, geological, and geophysical studies in the deep ocean. For instance, the Fendouzhe (Striver) developed for deep-sea exploration capabilities, has successfully reached a record depth of 10,909 meters in the Mariana Trench. The Jiaolong (Flood Dragon) and Shenhai Yongshi (Deep-sea Warrior) both capable of diving to significant depths, work alongside the Fendouzh in deep-sea exploration missions
China has made significant advancements in the development of Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs), which conduct a range of oceanographic research like mapping the seafloor, conducting environmental monitoring, and exploring deep-sea ecosystem; military missions that involve surveillance, reconnaissance, and underwater mine detection and even commercial offshore oil and gas exploration, underwater archaeology, and salvage operations. Being developed as part of its broader strategy to enhance its capabilities in deep-sea exploration and resource exploitation, the Shenyang Institute of Automation (SIA), China Shipbuilding Industry Corporation (CSIC) and Harbin Engineering University (HEU) are the leading Chinese AUV Developers.
Mining technology developed by China includes rigid riser with self-propelled Miner and different concepts of collector and lifting mechanisms and in terms of processing it has developed recovery of Manganese, Nickel, Copper, Cobalt, and Molybdenum.
China’s assertive approach to deep-sea mining has significant geopolitical consequences. With the most exploration licenses, China is establishing itself as a leading force in the industry, raising concerns about resource dominance and the possibility of international disputes over seabed resources. There is fierce global debate around the environmental safety of seabed mining has emerged given the lack of knowledge surrounding deep-sea ecosystems, and the extent of their vulnerability to mining. There are also issues related to environmental policies, regulations, risk perceptions, uncertainties, and the application of the precautionary principle. Deep-sea mining poses significant risks to marine ecosystems, primarily due to the lack of comprehensive data on the potential ecological impacts.
This is a critical period in terms of deep seabed mining exploration, regulation, drafting and likelihood of exploitation of the seabeds. As seabed mining becomes more viable, there is a risk that China, which dominates the market for critical minerals could extend its dominance to the ocean floor, potentially leading to unequal access to these resources and exacerbating geopolitical tension. There is still limited knowledge of deep-sea ecosystems. Given the high possibility of extreme adverse impacts from seabed mining on marine ecosystems it is paramount to proceed with caution seabed mining hence aggressive seabed extraction causes irreversible harm to ocean environments and their associated biodiversity, processes and functions.
Vaishali Basu Sharma
*The author is an analyst on geopolitical and macroeconomic issues*
The views expressed here are the author’s own and do not necessarily reflect the organization’s
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